Faculty Bibliography

Child obesity is widely prevalent, and general pediatricians play an important role in identifying and caring for patients with obesity. Appropriate evaluation and treatment require an understanding of the complex etiology of child obesity, its intergenerational transmission, and its epidemiologic trends, including racial/ethnic and socioeconomic disparities. The American Academy of Pediatrics has published screening, evaluation, and treatment guidelines based on the best available evidence. However, gaps in evidence remain, and implementation of evidence-based recommendations can be challenging. It is important to review optimal care in both the primary care and multidisciplinary weight management settings. This allows for timely evaluation and appropriate referrals, with the pediatrician playing a key role in advocating for patients at higher risk. There is also a role for larger-scale prevention and policy measures that would not only aid pediatricians in managing obesity but greatly benefit child health on a population scale.

OBJECTIVES/OBJECTIVE:Determine whether the negative impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on weight gain trajectories among children attending well-child visits in New York City persisted after the public health restrictions were reduced. STUDY DESIGN/METHODS:Multicenter retrospective chart review study of 7150 children aged 3-19 years seen for well-child care between 1 January 2018 and 4 December 2021 in the NYC Health and Hospitals system. Primary outcome was the difference in annual change of modified body mass index z-score (mBMIz) between the pre-pandemic and early- and late-pandemic periods. The mBMIz allows for tracking of a greater range of BMI values than the traditional BMI z-score. The secondary outcome was odds of overweight, obesity, or severe obesity. Multivariable analyses were conducted with each outcome as the dependent variable, and year, age category, sex, race/ethnicity, insurance status, NYC borough, and baseline weight category as independent variables. RESULTS:The difference in annual mBMIz change for pre-pandemic to early-pandemic = 0.18 (95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.15, 0.20) and for pre-pandemic to late-pandemic = 0.04 (95% CI: 0.01, 0.06). There was a statistically significant interaction between period and baseline weight category. Those with severe obesity at baseline had the greatest mBMIz increase during both pandemic periods and those with underweight at baseline had the lowest mBMIz increase during both pandemic periods. CONCLUSION/CONCLUSIONS:In NYC, the worsening mBMIz trajectories for children associated with COVID-19 restrictions did not reverse by 2021. Decisions about continuing restrictions, such as school closures, should carefully weigh the negative health impact of these policies.

BACKGROUND:Prior studies of early antibiotic use and growth have shown mixed results, primarily on cross-sectional outcomes. This study examined the effect of oral antibiotics before age 24 months on growth trajectory at age 2-5 years. METHODS:We captured oral antibiotic prescriptions and anthropometrics from electronic health records through PCORnet, for children with ≥1 height and weight at 0-12 months of age, ≥1 at 12-30 months, and ≥2 between 25 and 72 months. Prescriptions were grouped into episodes by time and by antimicrobial spectrum. Longitudinal rate regression was used to assess differences in growth rate from 25 to 72 months of age. Models were adjusted for sex, race/ethnicity, steroid use, diagnosed asthma, complex chronic conditions, and infections. RESULTS:430,376 children from 29 health U.S. systems were included, with 58% receiving antibiotics before 24 months. Exposure to any antibiotic was associated with an average 0.7% (95% CI 0.5, 0.9, p < 0.0001) greater rate of weight gain, corresponding to 0.05 kg additional weight. The estimated effect was slightly greater for narrow-spectrum (0.8% [0.6, 1.1]) than broad-spectrum (0.6% [0.3, 0.8], p < 0.0001) drugs. There was a small dose response relationship between the number of antibiotic episodes and weight gain. CONCLUSION/CONCLUSIONS:Oral antibiotic use prior to 24 months of age was associated with very small changes in average growth rate at ages 2-5 years. The small effect size is unlikely to affect individual prescribing decisions, though it may reflect a biologic effect that can combine with others.

BACKGROUND:Appetite traits and feeding practices are important determinants of child weight and obesity. OBJECTIVES/OBJECTIVE:This study examined whether: (1) infant appetite traits were associated with feeding practices and (2) feeding practices mediated the link between appetite traits and weight-for-age z-scores at age 3 years. METHODS:We conducted a secondary data analysis from the 'Starting Early Program' of low-income, Hispanic mother-child pairs. Appetite traits were assessed using the Baby Eating Behaviour Questionnaire. Infant feeding practices were collected using 24-h dietary recalls and surveys: (1) breastfeeding exclusivity, intensity and duration; (2) early introduction to complementary foods/liquids and (3) any 100% fruit juice consumption at age 10 months. Regression and mediation analyses were used to explore associations between appetite, feeding and weight. RESULTS:Higher infant Slowness in Eating scores were associated with greater breastfeeding exclusivity, intensity and duration, compared to lower Slowness in Eating. Infants with higher Slowness in Eating and Satiety Responsiveness had lower odds of early introduction to complementary foods/liquids. Infants with higher Enjoyment of Food had greater odds of 100% juice consumption. Breastfeeding duration mediated the relationship between higher infant Slowness in Eating and lower weight-for-age z-scores. CONCLUSIONS:Appetite traits represent potential targets for early life infant feeding interventions.

INTRODUCTION/BACKGROUND:Little is known about how early (eg, commencing antenatally or in the first 12 months after birth) obesity prevention interventions seek to change behaviour and which components are or are not effective. This study aims to (1) characterise early obesity prevention interventions in terms of target behaviours, delivery features and behaviour change techniques (BCTs), (2) explore similarities and differences in BCTs used to target behaviours and (3) explore effectiveness of intervention components in preventing childhood obesity. METHODS AND ANALYSIS/UNASSIGNED:Annual comprehensive systematic searches will be performed in Epub Ahead of Print/MEDLINE, Embase, Cochrane (CENTRAL), CINAHL, PsycINFO, as well as clinical trial registries. Eligible randomised controlled trials of behavioural interventions to prevent childhood obesity commencing antenatally or in the first year after birth will be invited to join the Transforming Obesity in CHILDren Collaboration. Standard ontologies will be used to code target behaviours, delivery features and BCTs in both published and unpublished intervention materials provided by trialists. Narrative syntheses will be performed to summarise intervention components and compare applied BCTs by types of target behaviours. Exploratory analyses will be undertaken to assess effectiveness of intervention components. ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION/UNASSIGNED:The study has been approved by The University of Sydney Human Research Ethics Committee (project no. 2020/273) and Flinders University Social and Behavioural Research Ethics Committee (project no. HREC CIA2133-1). The study's findings will be disseminated through peer-reviewed publications, conference presentations and targeted communication with key stakeholders. PROSPERO REGISTRATION NUMBER/UNASSIGNED:CRD42020177408.

INTRODUCTION/BACKGROUND:Behavioural interventions in early life appear to show some effect in reducing childhood overweight and obesity. However, uncertainty remains regarding their overall effectiveness, and whether effectiveness differs among key subgroups. These evidence gaps have prompted an increase in very early childhood obesity prevention trials worldwide. Combining the individual participant data (IPD) from these trials will enhance statistical power to determine overall effectiveness and enable examination of individual and trial-level subgroups. We present a protocol for a systematic review with IPD meta-analysis to evaluate the effectiveness of obesity prevention interventions commencing antenatally or in the first year after birth, and to explore whether there are differential effects among key subgroups. METHODS AND ANALYSIS/UNASSIGNED:Systematic searches of Medline, Embase, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature (CINAHL), PsycInfo and trial registries for all ongoing and completed randomised controlled trials evaluating behavioural interventions for the prevention of early childhood obesity have been completed up to March 2021 and will be updated annually to include additional trials. Eligible trialists will be asked to share their IPD; if unavailable, aggregate data will be used where possible. An IPD meta-analysis and a nested prospective meta-analysis will be performed using methodologies recommended by the Cochrane Collaboration. The primary outcome will be body mass index z-score at age 24±6 months using WHO Growth Standards, and effect differences will be explored among prespecified individual and trial-level subgroups. Secondary outcomes include other child weight-related measures, infant feeding, dietary intake, physical activity, sedentary behaviours, sleep, parenting measures and adverse events. ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION/UNASSIGNED:Approved by The University of Sydney Human Research Ethics Committee (2020/273) and Flinders University Social and Behavioural Research Ethics Committee (HREC CIA2133-1). Results will be relevant to clinicians, child health services, researchers, policy-makers and families, and will be disseminated via publications, presentations and media releases. PROSPERO REGISTRATION NUMBER/UNASSIGNED:CRD42020177408.

OBJECTIVE:Children in low-income Hispanic families are at high risk of obesity and are more likely to live with grandparents than their non-Hispanic white counterparts. We aimed to determine if grandparent coresidence (prenatal through age two years) was associated with: 1) obesogenic feeding practices; and 2) child weight outcomes from birth to three years. METHODS:We analyzed data from 267 low-income, Hispanic mother-infant pairs in the control group of an obesity prevention trial in New York City. Linear and logistic regression tested differences in obesogenic feeding practices and weight outcomes at two and three years, dependent upon grandparent coresidence. Multilevel modeling tested associations between grandparent coresidence and WFAz over time. RESULTS:Persistent grandparent coresidence (versus none) was associated with putting cereal in the bottle (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] 3.46; 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.43, 8.40). Persistent grandparent coresidence (versus none) was associated with higher mean WFAz (2 years: B 0.83; 95% CI 0.41, 1.25; 3 years: B 0.79; 95% CI 0.32, 1.25) and higher odds of child overweight/obesity risk (two years: aOR 4.38; 95% CI 1.64, 11.69; three years: aOR 3.15; 95% CI 1.19, 8.36). In multilevel models, more occasions of grandparent coresidence were associated with higher WFAz. CONCLUSIONS:Grandparent coresidence may be associated with higher risk of child overweight/obesity in low-income, Hispanic families. Further research is needed to elucidate mechanisms of these associations and to inform obesity prevention strategies in the context of multigenerational families.

OBJECTIVES/OBJECTIVE:Maternal stress has been associated with early child obesity through pathways related to decreased exclusive breastfeeding and increased non-responsive maternal-infant feeding styles. We sought to gain an in-depth understanding of how maternal stress, sadness, and isolation are perceived to affect feeding, in order to inform modifiable targets of intervention. METHODS:We conducted semi-structured qualitative interviews with Hispanic mothers living in poverty with young infants between 3 and 7 months old (n=32) from the intervention group of a randomized controlled trial of an early child obesity prevention intervention (Starting Early Program). Bilingual English-Spanish interviewers conducted the interviews, which were audio recorded, transcribed, and translated. Building on an existing theoretical framework developed by the National Scientific Council on the Developing Child, we used an iterative process of textual analysis to code the transcripts, until thematic saturation was reached. RESULTS:Three key themes were described: 1) maternal stress responses were varied and included: positive (brief and mild), tolerable (sustained but limited long-term impacts), or toxic stress (sustained and severe); 2) buffers included support from family, infants, health care providers, social service programs, and community organizations; 3) perceived effects on infant feeding: decreased breastfeeding due to concerns about stress passing directly through breast milk and indirectly through physical closeness, and increased non-responsive feeding styles. CONCLUSIONS:Maternal stress, particularly toxic stress, was perceived to negatively affect infant feeding. Mothers reported disrupting healthy feeding to avoid infant exposure to stress. Interventions to enhance buffering may help to mitigate toxic stress and promote healthy feeding interactions.

Poverty-related disparities appear early in life in cognitive, language, and social-emotional development, and in growth, especially obesity, and have long-term consequences across the life course. It is essential to develop effective strategies to promote healthy behaviors in pregnancy and the early years of parenthood that can mitigate disparities. Primary preventive interventions within the pediatric primary care setting offer universal access, high engagement, and population-level impact at low cost. While many families in poverty or with low income would benefit from preventive services related to both development and growth, most successful interventions have tended to focus on only one of these domains. In this manuscript, we suggest that it may be possible to address both development and growth simultaneously and effectively. In particular, current theoretical models suggest alignment in mechanisms by which poverty can create barriers to parent-child early relational health (i.e., parenting practices, creating structure, and parent-child relationship quality), constituting a final common pathway for both domains. Based on these models and related empirical data, we propose a strength-based, whole child approach to target common antecedents through positive parenting and prevent disparities in both development and growth; we believe this approach has the potential to transform policy and practice. Achieving these goals will require new payment systems that make scaling of primary prevention in health care feasible, research funding to assess efficacy/effectiveness and inform implementation, and collaboration among early childhood stakeholders, including clinicians across specialties, scientists across academic disciplines, and policy makers.

BACKGROUND:Child appetite traits (ATs) are associated with later child weight and obesity risk. Less research has focused on ATs in low-income Hispanic children or included longitudinal associations with infant weight. OBJECTIVE:To determine stability of ATs during infancy and childhood and their relationship with subsequent weight and obesity risk at age 3 years among low-income Hispanic children. DESIGN/METHODS:A secondary longitudinal analysis of data from the Starting Early Program randomized controlled obesity prevention trial. PARTICIPANTS/SETTING/METHODS:Three hundred twenty-two low-income, Hispanic mother-child pairs enrolled between 2012 and 2014 in a public hospital in New York City. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES/METHODS:ATs, including Slowness in Eating, Satiety Responsiveness, Food Responsiveness, and Enjoyment of Food were assessed using the Baby and Child Eating Behavior Questionnaires at ages 3 months, 2 years, and 3 years. Main outcome measures were child standardized weight-for-age z score (WFAz) and obesity risk (WFA≥95th percentile) at age 3 years. STATISTICAL ANALYSES PERFORMED/METHODS:AT stability was assessed using correlations and multilevel modeling. Linear and logistic regression analyses examined associations between ATs and child WFAz and obesity risk at age 3 years. RESULTS:There was limited stability for all ATs measured over time. During infancy, Slowness in Eating was associated with lower 3-year WFAz (B = -0.18, 95% CI -0.33 to -0.04; P = 0.01). At age 2 years, Slowness in Eating and Satiety Responsiveness were associated with lower WFAz (B = -0.29, 95% CI -0.47 to -0.12; P < 0.01; B = -0.36, 95% CI -0.55 to -0.17; P < 0.01) and obesity risk (adjusted odds ratio 0.49, 95% CI 0.28 to 0.85; adjusted odds ratio 0.61, 95% CI 0.38 to 0.99) at 3 years. Increased Slowness in Eating and Satiety Responsiveness over time were associated with lower 3-year WFAz (B = -0.74, 95% CI -1.18 to -0.2 [Slowness in Eating]; B = -1.19, 95% CI -1.87 to -0.52 [Satiety Responsiveness], both P values = 0.001). Higher Enjoyment of Food over time was associated with higher 3-year WFAz (B = 0.62, 95% CI 0.24 to 1.01; P = 0.002). CONCLUSIONS:Infants with lower Slowness in Eating and Satiety Responsiveness may have higher levels of obesity risk and need more tailored approaches to nutrition counseling and obesity prevention.