Faculty Bibliography

BACKGROUND: Air leaks prolong hospital stay. METHODS: A prospective algorithm was applied to patients. If patients were ready for discharge but still had an air leak, a Heimlich valve was placed and they were discharged. If the leak was still present after 2 weeks, the tube was clamped for a day and removed. RESULTS: There were 669 patients. Factors that predicted a persistent air leak were FEV1% of less than 79% (p = 0.006), history of steroid use (p = 0.002), male gender (p = 0.05), and having a lobectomy (p = 0.01). Types of air leaks on day 1 that eventually required a Heimlich valve were expiratory leaks (p = 0.02), leaks that were an expiratory 4 or more (p < 0.0001), and the presence of a pneumothorax concomitant with an air leak (p < 0.0001). Thirty-three patients were placed on a Heimlich valve, and 6 patients had a pneumothorax or subcutaneous emphysema develop; all patients had an expiratory 5 leak or larger (p < 0.0001). Thirty-three patients went home on a valve. Seventeen patients had leaks that resolved by 1 week, 6 by 2 weeks, and the remaining 9 had their tubes removed without problems. CONCLUSIONS: Steroid use, male gender, a large leak, a leak with a pneumothorax, and having a lobectomy are all risk factors for a persistent leak. Discharge on a Heimlich valve is safe and effective for patients with a persistent leak unless the leak is an expiratory 5 or more. Once home on a valve, most air leaks will seal in 2 weeks; if not, chest tubes can be safely removed regardless of the size of the leak or the presence of a pneumothorax.

Persistent air leaks are caused by the failure of the postoperative lung to achieve a configuration that is physiologically amenable to healing. The raw pulmonary surface caused by the dissection of the fissure often is separated from the pleura, and the air leak fails to close. Additionally, higher air flow thorough an alveolar-pleural fistula seems to keep the fistula open. Other factors that interfere with wound healing, such as steroid use, diabetes, or malnutrition, can result in persistence of the leak. A thoracic surgeon can minimize the incidence of air leak through meticulous surgical technique and can identify patients in whom the balance of risks (Table 1) and benefits warrant operative intervention based on an understanding of the underlying pathophysiology.

OBJECTIVES: Video-assisted thoracoscopic surgery with talc pleurodesis is a therapeutic option for patients with hepatic hydrothorax that is refractory to medical therapy. We report the outcomes of 15 patients who underwent this procedure for significantly symptomatic disease. METHODS: Data on 15 consecutive patients presenting to our institution between November, 1996, and June, 2000, with refractory hepatic hydrothorax was retrospectively collected. Baseline demographical and clinical characteristics and outcomes after the procedure were analyzed. RESULTS: The mean age of our cohort was 51.5 yr, and eight (53%) of the 15 patients were male. The etiologies of liver disease were hepatitis C virus and/or alcohol (n = 12) and cryptogenic cirrhosis (n = 3). Nine patients were Child-Pugh class C and six class B. Success defined as control of symptomatic hydrothorax in the first 30 days after the procedure was achieved in 11 of 15 patients (73%). Eight of these patients remained asymptomatic at a median follow-up of 5.5 months after the procedure, but three patients experienced symptomatic fluid reaccumulation 45, 61, and 62 days after the initial procedure. After a second VATS procedure, control was achieved in two of these three patients. Complications included pain around the chest tube site, low grade fever with leukocytosis, pleurocutaneous fistula and empyema, all of which responded to medical therapy. Four patients did not respond to the procedure. There were no procedure-related deaths. Overall mortality and baseline clinical characteristics were similar between responders and nonresponders to VATS with pleurodesis. CONCLUSIONS: Symptomatic hepatic hydrothorax can be controlled with a single VATS with pleurodesis in as many as 53% of patients and with two procedures in 73% with no procedure-related mortality. The procedure may be considered as a palliative alternative in patients needing frequent thoracocentesis. It also provides an alternative to transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunts and is a bridge toward liver transplantation.

This article summarizes several of the studies utilizing randomized trials or predetermined algorithms for chest tube management. The classification system, when to use wall suction, when to use water seal, and how to safely discharge patients by the fourth postoperative day-even with air leaks-are outlined.

This article has provided a detailed description of the entire decision-making process of chest tube management. Although these protocols were derived from prospective randomized trials, further studies are needed.

Adenocarcinoma (AC), squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) and adenosquamous carcinoma (ASC) of the lung are morphologically distinguished in part by cyto-architectural features. However, little is known about the relative expression and distribution of cyto-architectural proteins among AC, SCC and ASC. Initial microarray analysis revealed significant differences in expression of two cyto-architectural genes in AC, SCC and ASC. Desmoplakin (DP) 1 and 2, which link desmosomes to intermediate filaments, was strongly expressed in SCC relative to AC and ASC. Cytokeratin 18 (CK18), an intermediate filament that is commonly linked to desmoplakin, was strongly expressed in AC and ASC relative to SCC. Western blot analysis demonstrated that AC and ASC had abundant CK18 protein, whereas CK18 was weakly detected in SCC. DP 1 and 2 are strongly expressed in SCC and minimally expressed in AC and ASC. However, the ratio of one to the other is the same in SCC and AC, but DP2 is lost in ASC. Microscopic analysis with fluorescence-labeled antibodies for CK18 and DP 1 and 2 revealed abundant membrane localization of DP and minimal perinuclear localization of CK18 in SCC. In contrast, in both AC and ASC, the CK18 protein was diffusely distributed within the cytoplasm, and DP showed both membranous and cytoplasmic localization. In conclusion, the data here shows that AC, SCC and ASC each have specific patterns of DP 1 and 2 and CK18 gene expression, protein content and biodistribution.