Faculty Bibliography

PURPOSE/OBJECTIVE:To study structural and angiographic optical coherence tomography (OCT) data of the macula from controls, diabetics, and those with glaucoma to evaluate neurovascular and structural relationships. METHODS:This is a retrospective study of 89 eyes from 49 patients in a community-based retinal referral practice with diabetes, glaucoma, and normal controls. The patients were evaluated with OCT to include retinal nerve fiber layer (RNFL) thickness measurement and ganglion cell layer (GCL) volume determination. The vascular density of the radial peripapillary capillary network and the vascular plexuses in the macula were evaluated with OCT angiography. The main outcome measures were the data obtained per disease state and the interrelationships the data displayed. RESULTS:The mean GCL volumes were significantly lower than the Control Group in both the Diabetic (P=.016) and Glaucoma groups (P<.001). The difference between the Diabetic and Glaucoma groups was not significant (P=.052). The mean global vascular density was greater in the Control group than the Diabetic group (P=.002,) and the Glaucoma group (P<.001). The mean RNFL thicknesses were lowest in the Glaucoma group. Both the Diabetic and Glaucoma groups had significantly lower radial peripapillary network and deep vascular plexus density values as compared with controls. CONCLUSIONS:While there are important differences in disease pathogenesis differ between diabetes and glaucoma, they share certain similarities in the structural and angiographic abnormalities eventually produced. This suggests that in addition to canonical pathways of disease, a component of both could represent neurodegenerative disease, offering the possibility for the development of new treatments.

PURPOSE/OBJECTIVE:To investigate eyes with solitary large aneurysms arising from retinal capillaries. METHODS:Consecutive patients with aneurysms greater than 200 µm in diameter were evaluated with a comprehensive ophthalmologic examination including optical coherence tomography, optical coherence tomography angiography, and fluorescein angiography. The aneurysms were solitary in the sense, and there was only one aneurysm larger than the threshold diameter and a few or no other aneurysms. RESULTS:There were 5 patients, 3 male patients, who had aneurysms that reached a maximal mean size of 273.4 µm. One patient had stable diabetic retinopathy and had a documented growth of a capillary aneurysm to 331 µm over an 8-year 7-month period until the aneurysm was associated with widespread edema. The remaining 4 patients did not have diabetes or any discernable retinal vascular disease. Anti-vascular endothelial growth factor treatment was associated with a partial response in one patient and no apparent response in the others. Laser photocoagulation of the aneurysms resulted in resolution of the edema and involution of the lesions. CONCLUSION/CONCLUSIONS:Large aneurysms arising from retinal capillaries occur and have a candidate name of retinal capillary macroaneurysms. Histologic evaluation of retinal capillary aneurysms shows the presence of matrix metalloproteinase-9, which may function to decrease the wall strength in the face of increasing wall tension from aneurysmal expansion, as predicted by LaPlace's law. Thus, retinal capillary macroaneurysms may have multiple forces driving their formation.

PURPOSE/OBJECTIVE:To investigate the imaging characteristics of early Type 3 neovascularization and propose a new pathophysiologic sequence for early disease. METHODS:Patients were evaluated with a comprehensive ophthalmologic examination to include fundus photography, optical coherence tomography, optical coherence tomography angiography, fluorescein angiography, and volume-rendered optical coherence tomography angiography. Relevant literature was also reviewed. RESULTS:There were 10 eyes of 9 patients who had a mean age of 87 (range 79-93) years and 7 were women. The patients were seen to have distributed areas of cystoid macular edema, not necessarily contiguous with areas of fluorescein or optical coherence tomography angiographic evidence of neovascularization, which colocalized with each other. Areas of hemorrhage were not necessarily contiguous with observed neovascularization. In some patients, massive amounts of edema were imaged, although the associated neovascular invasion was small and did not reach deeper portions of the retina. These findings were readily responsive to intravitreal injections of anti-vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) medication. Review of published literature showed conflicting pathophysiologic proposals, which did not abide with contemporaneous imaging findings. CONCLUSION/CONCLUSIONS:Type 3 neovascularization likely grows in response to increased cytokine levels, particularly VEGF, in a permissive environment. Elevated levels of VEGF have been shown to cause hemorrhage, edema, and telangiectasis in the macula, suggesting some of the manifestations of Type 3 neovascularization are related to increased tissue VEGF levels and not necessarily to the neovascularization alone. A proposal based on imaging and histopathologic findings and known physiologic effects of VEGF is presented.

PURPOSE/OBJECTIVE:To evaluate the long-term visual outcomes and causes of vision loss in chronic central serous chorioretinopathy (CSC). DESIGN/METHODS:Retrospective, longitudinal study SUBJECTS: One-hundred and thirty-three subjects (217 eyes) with chronic CSC. METHODS:A retrospective review of clinical and multimodal imaging data of patients with chronic CSC managed by 3 of the authors between May 1977 and March 2018. Multimodal imaging comprised color photography, fluorescein angiography, indocyanine green angiography, fundus autofluorescence (FAF) and optical coherence tomography (OCT). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES/METHODS:Best corrected visual acuity (BCVA) at the final visit; change in BCVA between first visit and 1, 5 and 10-year follow-up visits, and causes of vision loss at final visit. RESULTS:Data from 6,228 individual clinic visits were analyzed. Mean age of patients at the first visit was 60.7 years and mean period of follow-up from first to last visit was 11.3 years. The cohort included 101 males (75.9%). At the final visit, 106 patients (79.7%) maintained driving-standard vision with BCVA of 20/40 or better in at least one eye and 17 patients (12.8%) were legally blind with BCVA of 20/200 or worse in both eyes. Mean BCVA at first visit was not significantly different from mean BCVA at 1 or 5-year follow-up visits (both p≥0.65) but was significantly better than the mean BCVA at the 10-year follow-up visit (p=0.04). Seventy-nine percent of eyes with 20/40 or better vision at the first visit maintained the same level of vision at the 10-year follow-up visit. Ninety-two percent of eyes with 20/200 or worse vision at the first visit maintained the same level of vision at the 10-year follow-up visit. Cystoid macular degeneration, choroidal neovascularization, outer retinal disruption on OCT and FAF changes were associated with poorer vision at final visit (all p≤0.001). Multivariable analysis revealed that greater age at first visit was associated with greater BCVA change at the 10-year follow-up visit (p=0.001). CONCLUSION/CONCLUSIONS:Chronic CSC can be a sight-threatening disease leading to legal blindness. Age at presentation and outer retinal changes on multimodal imaging were associated with long-term BCVA changes and may be predictors of long-term visual outcomes.

PURPOSE/OBJECTIVE:To investigate the macular changes over time in eyes containing subretinal drusenoid deposits (also known as pseudodrusen) with no drusen >63 µm. METHODS:A consecutive series of patients were examined with color fundus photography, optical coherence tomography, and autofluorescence imaging with fluorescein angiography used as necessary. Exclusionary criteria included macular neovascularization, history of retinal surgery, pseudoxanthoma elasticum, and drusen >63 µm. RESULTS:There were 85 eyes of 54 patients. The mean age at baseline was 83.6 (±7.8) years, and there were 17 men. The mean follow-up was 5.0 (±2.9) years. At initial optical coherence tomography examination, 12 eyes had extrafoveal atrophy and 17 eyes had vitelliform deposits, which were yellowish white subretinal collections that showed intense hyperautofluorescence. During follow-up, 11 eyes lost vitelliform material. After the disappearance of small deposits, focal hyperpigmentation remained. Loss of larger deposits was associated with noteworthy sequela; six developed subfoveal atrophy and one macular neovascularization close to regressing vitelliform material. Subfoveal geographic atrophy developed in four other eyes without vitelliform material by extension from areas of extrafoveal atrophy. Macular neovascularization developed in seven eyes over follow-up. The CFH Y402H and ARMS2 A69S allele frequencies were 57% and 48.9%, respectively, which is similar to a group of age-related macular degeneration controls. One patient had a novel PRPH2 mutation, but did not have a vitelliform deposit; the remainder had a normal PRPH2 and BEST1 coding sequences. CONCLUSION/CONCLUSIONS:Eyes with subretinal drusenoid deposits and no drusen >63 mm have significant risk for the development of both neovascularization and geographic atrophy, the fundamental components of late age-related macular degeneration. An intermediate step in some eyes was the development of a vitelliform deposit, an entity not traditionally associated with age-related macular degeneration, but in these patients, the material seemed to be an important component of the disease pathophysiology. This vitelliform deposit was not associated with genetic markers for pattern dystrophy or Best disease.

PURPOSE/OBJECTIVE:To investigate the deep retinal vascular changes potentially present in macular telangiectasis Type 2 (MacTel 2) with projection resolved optical coherence tomography angiography including volume rendering. METHODS:Retrospective consecutive evaluation of patients with MacTel 2 in a community-based retinal referral practice with a comprehensive ophthalmologic examination to include optical coherence tomography and projection-resolved optical coherence tomography angiography with volume rendering. Main outcome measures were the characterization of vessel presence and anatomical arrangement in the outer retina. RESULTS:There were 26 eyes of 13 patients with a mean age of 64.9 (±11.3) years, and 6 were men. The mean visual acuity was logMAR 0.4 (Snellen equivalent 20/50). No eye had signs of choroidal neovascularization or exudation. Focal hyperpigmentation was seen in 13 (50%) and right-angle veins in 17 (65%) eyes. Retinal-choroidal anastomoses were seen in 17 (65%) eyes. These anastomoses typically occurred in multiple clusters of small vessels. The presence of anastomoses was associated with pigment (P < 0.001), although the anastomoses did not necessarily colocalize with the pigment, and right-angle veins (P < 0.001), which were found in every eye with a retinal-choroidal anastomosis. CONCLUSION/CONCLUSIONS:Retinal-choroidal anastomoses were commonly observed in eyes with MacTel 2 using projection-resolved optical coherence tomography angiography. One animal model for MacTel 2 uses very low-density lipoprotein receptor mutant mice and shows multiple retinal-choroidal anastomoses in the disease pathogenesis as well. These findings suggest MacTel 2 is more than just a neurodegenerative disease with secondary vascular abnormalities, as the choroid may be involved in the disease process.

A distinction between conventional drusen and pseudodrusen was first made in 1990, and more recently knowledge of pseudodrusen, more accurately called subretinal drusenoid deposits (SDD), has expanded. Pseudodrusen have a bluish-white appearance by biomicroscopy and color fundus photography. Using optical coherence tomography, pseudodrusen were found to be accumulations of material internal to the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) that could extend internally through the ellipsoid zone. These deposits are more commonly seen in older eyes with thinner choroids. Histologic evaluation of these deposits revealed aggregations of material in the subretinal space between photoreceptors and RPE. SDD contain some proteins in common with soft drusen, but differ in lipid composition. Many studies reported that SDD are strong independent risk factors for late age-related macular degeneration (AMD). Geographic atrophy and Type 3 neovascularization are particularly associated with SDD. Unlike conventional drusen, eyes with SDD show slowed dark adaptation and poor contrast sensitivity. Eyes with regression of SDD develop outer retinal atrophy, which is a newly recognized form of late AMD. Advances in imaging technology have enabled many insights into this condition, including associated photoreceptor, RPE, and underlying choroidal changes.