Faculty Bibliography

Background: In the US, nearly half of sexually transmitted infections (STIs) occur among 15-24-year-olds, and disproportionate rates of infections exist among blacks. Modifiable factors that drive STI transmission from adolescence into young adulthood should be identified, especially among this vulnerable population.Methods: The National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (n=13123) was used to examine racial differences in the prevalence of adolescent inhalant use and unadjusted and adjusted longitudinal associations between inhalant use and adulthood STI risk.Results: Adolescent inhalant use was more commonly reported by whites than blacks. Inhalant use was an indicator of adulthood multiple partnerships among all groups except black females and was an especially strong indicator of 10 or more past year partnerships among men (white risk ratio (RR): 3.48, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.46-8.32; black RR: 4.47, 95% CI: 1.34-14.90). Adolescent inhalant use was also predictive of adulthood STI among white women and black men, with black male inhalant users having more than twice the risk of a biologically-confirmed or self-reported STI in adulthood than non-users (RR: 2.35, 95% CI: 1.29-4.25).Conclusions: White adolescents and, more so, black male adolescents inhalant users experience disproportionate adulthood STI risk and, thus, constitute a priority population for STI prevention.

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is primarily spread through risky injection practices, including sharing needles, cookers, cottons, rinse water, and the practice of backloading. An important aspect of harm reduction for people who inject drugs (PWID) is to identify factors that contribute to safer injection. Planning ability may influence risky injection practices and gender differences in factors that drive injection practices indicate a need to examine associations between planning and injection behaviors in men versus women. Data from the NEURO-HIV Epidemiologic Study was restricted to those who had ever injected in their lifetime (n=456). Impaired planning ability was assessed with the Tower of London and defined as a standardized total excess move score below the 10th percentile. We used logistic regression to estimate the gender-specific adjusted odds ratios (AOR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) for associations between impaired planning, each injection practice, and biologically-confirmed HCV. Impaired planning ability was associated with sharing needles (AOR=2.93, 95% CI: 1.33, 6.47), cookers (AOR=3.13, 95% CI: 1.22, 8.02), cottons (AOR=2.89, 95% CI: 1.23, 6.78), rinse water (AOR=2.43, 95% CI: 1.15, 5.14), and backloading (AOR=2.68, 95% CI: 1.26, 5.70) and HCV (AOR=3.42, 95% CI: 1.03, 11.38) among men. Planning ability was not significantly associated with the injection behaviors or HCV among women, suggesting that other factors likely contribute to risky injection practices. Interventions to promote harm reduction among PWID should ascertain and strengthen planning ability. Women may have additional barriers to practicing safe injection beyond impaired planning abilities, which should also be addressed.

African Americans face disproportionate sexually transmitted infection including HIV (STI/HIV), with those passing through a correctional facility at heightened risk. There is a need to identify modifiable STI/HIV risk factors among incarcerated African Americans. Project DISRUPT is a cohort study of incarcerated African American men recruited from September 2011 through January 2014 from prisons in North Carolina who were in committed partnerships with women at prison entry (N = 207). During the baseline (in-prison) study visit, participants responded to a risk behavior survey and provided a urine specimen, which was tested for STIs. Substantial proportions reported multiple partnerships (42 %), concurrent partnerships (33 %), and buying sex (11 %) in the 6 months before incarceration, and 9 % tested positive for an STI at baseline (chlamydia: 5.3 %, gonorrhea: 0.5 %, trichomoniasis: 4.9 %). Poverty and depression appeared to be strongly associated with sexual risk behaviors. Substance use was linked to prevalent STI, with binge drinking the strongest independent risk factor (adjusted odds ratio: 3.79, 95 % CI 1.19-12.04). There is a continued need for improved prison-based STI testing, treatment, and prevention education as well as mental health and substance use diagnosis.

After release from incarceration, former female inmates face considerable stressors, which may influence drug use and other risk behaviors that increase risk for HIV infection. Involvement in a committed partnership may protect women against re-entry stressors that may lead to risky behaviors. This study measured the association between time since release from incarceration (1-6 months ago, and >6 months ago versus never incarcerated) and HIV risk behaviors and evaluated whether these associations differed by involvement in a committed partnership. Women released within the past 6 months were significantly more likely to have smoked crack cocaine, used injection drugs and engaged in transactional sex in the past month compared to never-incarcerated women and women released more distally. Stratified analyses indicated that incarceration within the past 6 months was associated with crack cocaine smoking, injection drug use and transactional sex among women without a committed partner yet unassociated with these risk behaviors among those with a committed partner.

In the U.S., HIV is concentrated among men who have sex with men (MSM), some of whom have had female partners (MSMW). MSMW are disproportionately impacted by psychosocial vulnerabilities, like depression and substance use that increase sexually transmitted infection (STI) and HIV risk. Research on psychosocial vulnerability and HIV-related sexual risk among MSMW is warranted to reduce infection transmission among MSM and to prevent bridging to female partners. We analyzed data from Wave IV (2007-2008) of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health to assess psychosocial vulnerability and HIV risk-taking among MSMW. Using lifetime and past year sexual activity, we classified men as ever having sex with: women only (MSW), men only (MSMO) or MSMW, with further refined categorization of MSMW with male only partners in the past 12 months, only female partners in the past 12 months, and both male and female partners in the past 12 months (N = 6,945). We compared psychosocial vulnerability characteristics and HIV-related risk behaviors among the five categories of men. MSMW were more likely to report depression, suicidality, substance use, and incarceration than MSW and MSMO. Compared to MSW, MSMW with current female partners had greater odds of unprotected sex, exchange sex, and STI. MSMW with male partners in the past year had greater odds of multiple or concurrent partners in the past year. HIV risk and psychosocial vulnerability factors are elevated among MSMW, a priority population for HIV risk reduction. HIV risk reduction interventions should address this and heterogeneity of sexual partnerships among MSMW.

The effects of low-level lead exposure on neuropsychological status in the United States (US) general adult population have been reported, and the relationship between neuropsychiatric dysfunction and health risk behaviors including substance use and sexual risk taking is well established. However, the potential influence of lead exposure on risk-taking behavior has received little attention. Using the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2005-2010, we estimated multivariable logistic regression models to measure odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for the cross-sectional associations between blood lead level and risk behaviors including binge drinking, drug use, and indicator of sexually transmitted infection (STI) risk. STI indicators included past 12 month sexual risk behaviors (age mixing with partners who were at least five years younger or older and multiple partnerships), self-reported STI, and biologically-confirmed herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2) infection. Dose-response like relationships were observed between blood lead and substance use, age mixing with younger and older partners, self-reported STI, and HSV-2. In addition, participants with lead levels in highest quartile versus those with levels in the lowest quartile had over three times the odds of binge drinking and over twice the odds of injection drug or cocaine use in the past 12 months, while being in one of the top two quartiles was significantly associated with 30-70% increased odds of multiple partnerships, sex with older partners, and self-reported and biologically confirmed STI. Results from this study suggested that lead exposure may contribute to substance use, sexual risk-taking, and STI. However, given limitations inherent in the cross-sectional nature of the study, additional studies that use longitudinal data and measure detailed temporal information are warranted.

Trading sex for money, drugs, goods, services, or a place to stay is prevalent among women who use drugs and has been associated with women's risk of HIV acquisition. There is evidence that trading sex for drugs only may be associated with elevated risk of HIV compared with trading sex for money. The purpose of this study was to assess whether HIV risk behaviors and HIV prevalence differ among African American drug using women (N = 92) who traded sex for drugs only, traded sex for economic resources (defined as money, shelter, or other resources) only, or traded sex for both economic resources and drugs. In this study, lower rates of condom use and higher rates of HIV were found among women who traded sex for drugs only compared to women who traded sex for economic resources or for economic resources and drugs. These findings suggest that African American women who trade sex for drugs only represent an understudied yet highly vulnerable group.