Faculty Bibliography

To identify molecular mechanisms that function in G-protein signaling, we have performed molecular genetic studies of a simple behavior of the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans, egg laying, which is driven by a pair of serotonergic neurons, the hermaphrodite-specific neurons (HSNs). The activity of the HSNs is regulated by the G(o)-coupled receptor EGL-6, which mediates inhibition of the HSNs by neuropeptides. We report here that this inhibition requires one of three inwardly rectifying K(+) channels encoded by the C. elegans genome: IRK-1. Using ChannelRhodopsin-2-mediated stimulation of HSNs, we observed roles for egl-6 and irk-1 in regulating the excitability of HSNs. Although irk-1 is required for inhibition of HSNs by EGL-6 signaling, we found that other G(o) signaling pathways that inhibit HSNs involve irk-1 little or not at all. These findings suggest that the neuropeptide receptor EGL-6 regulates the potassium channel IRK-1 via a dedicated pool of G(o) not involved in other G(o)-mediated signaling. We conclude that G-protein-coupled receptors that signal through the same G-protein in the same cell might activate distinct effectors and that specific coupling of a G-protein-coupled receptor to its effectors can be determined by factors other than its associated G-proteins.

Aerobic metabolism is fundamental for almost all animal life. Cellular consumption of oxygen (O(2)) and production of carbon dioxide (CO(2)) signal metabolic states and physiological stresses. These respiratory gases are also detected as environmental cues that can signal external food quality and the presence of prey, predators and mates. In both contexts, animal nervous systems are endowed with mechanisms for sensing O(2)/CO(2) to trigger appropriate behaviors and maintain homeostasis of internal O(2)/CO(2). Although different animal species show different behavioral responses to O(2)/CO(2), some underlying molecular mechanisms and pathways that function in the detection of respiratory gases are fundamentally similar and evolutionarily conserved. Studies of Caenorhabditis elegans and Drosophila melanogaster have identified roles for cyclic nucleotide signaling and the hypoxia inducible factor (HIF) transcriptional pathway in mediating behavioral responses to respiratory gases. Understanding how simple invertebrate nervous systems detect respiratory gases to control behavior might reveal general principles common to nematodes, insects and vertebrates that function in the molecular sensing of respiratory gases and the neural control of animal behaviors.

Many animals possess neurons specialized for the detection of carbon dioxide (CO(2)), which acts as a cue to elicit behavioral responses and is also an internally generated product of respiration that regulates animal physiology. In many organisms how such neurons detect CO(2) is poorly understood. We report here a mechanism that endows C. elegans neurons with the ability to detect CO(2). The ETS-5 transcription factor is necessary for the specification of CO(2)-sensing BAG neurons. Expression of a single ETS-5 target gene, gcy-9, which encodes a receptor-type guanylate cyclase, is sufficient to bypass a requirement for ets-5 in CO(2)-detection and transforms neurons into CO(2)-sensing neurons. Because ETS-5 and GCY-9 are members of gene families that are conserved between nematodes and vertebrates, a similar mechanism might act in the specification of CO(2)-sensing neurons in other phyla.

CO(2) is both a critical regulator of animal physiology and an important sensory cue for many animals for host detection, food location, and mate finding. The free-living soil nematode Caenorhabditis elegans shows CO(2) avoidance behavior, which requires a pair of ciliated sensory neurons, the BAG neurons. Using in vivo calcium imaging, we show that CO(2) specifically activates the BAG neurons and that the CO(2)-sensing function of BAG neurons requires TAX-2/TAX-4 cyclic nucleotide-gated ion channels and the receptor-type guanylate cyclase GCY-9. Our results delineate a molecular pathway for CO(2) sensing and suggest that activation of a receptor-type guanylate cyclase is an evolutionarily conserved mechanism by which animals detect environmental CO(2)

Biogenic amines such as serotonin and dopamine are intercellular signaling molecules that function widely as neurotransmitters and neuromodulators. We have identified in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans three ligand-gated chloride channels that are receptors for biogenic amines: LGC-53 is a high-affinity dopamine receptor, LGC-55 is a high-affinity tyramine receptor, and LGC-40 is a low-affinity serotonin receptor that is also gated by choline and acetylcholine. lgc-55 mutants are defective in a behavior that requires endogenous tyramine, which indicates that this ionotropic tyramine receptor functions in tyramine signaling in vivo. Our studies suggest that direct activation of membrane chloride conductances is a general mechanism of action for biogenic amines in the modulation of C. elegans behavior

Egg-laying behavior of the Caenorhabditis elegans hermaphrodite is regulated by G protein signaling pathways. Here we show that the egg laying-defective mutant egl-6(n592) carries an activating mutation in a G protein-coupled receptor that inhibits C. elegans egg-laying motor neurons in a G(o)-dependent manner. Ligands for EGL-6 are Phe-Met-Arg-Phe-NH(2) (FMRFamide)-related peptides encoded by the genes flp-10 and flp-17. flp-10 is expressed in both neurons and non-neuronal cells. The major source of flp-17 peptides is a pair of presumptive sensory neurons, the BAG neurons. Genetic analysis of the egl-6 pathway revealed that the EGL-6 neuropeptide signaling pathway functions redundantly with acetylcholine to inhibit egg-laying. The retention of embryos in the uterus of the C. elegans hermaphrodite is therefore under the control of a presumptive sensory system and is inhibited by the convergence of signals from neuropeptides and the small-molecule neurotransmitter acetylcholine

Octopamine biosynthesis requires tyrosine decarboxylase to convert tyrosine into tyramine and tyramine beta-hydroxylase to convert tyramine into octopamine. We identified and characterized a Caenorhabditis elegans tyrosine decarboxylase gene, tdc-1, and a tyramine beta-hydroxylase gene, tbh-1. The TBH-1 protein is expressed in a subset of TDC-1-expressing cells, indicating that C. elegans has tyraminergic cells that are distinct from its octopaminergic cells. tdc-1 mutants have behavioral defects not shared by tbh-1 mutants. We show that tyramine plays a specific role in the inhibition of egg laying, the modulation of reversal behavior, and the suppression of head oscillations in response to anterior touch. We propose a model for the neural circuit that coordinates locomotion and head oscillations in response to anterior touch. Our findings establish tyramine as a neurotransmitter in C. elegans, and we suggest that tyramine is a genuine neurotransmitter in other invertebrates and possibly in vertebrates as well

We have previously identified synaptojanin 1, a phosphoinositide phosphatase predominantly expressed in the nervous system, and synaptojanin 2, a broadly expressed isoform. Synaptojanin 1 is concentrated in nerve terminals, where it has been implicated in synaptic vesicle recycling and actin function. Synaptojanin 2A is targeted to mitochondria via a PDZ domain-mediated interaction. We have now characterized an alternatively spliced form of synaptojanin 2 that shares several properties with synaptojanin 1. This isoform, synaptojanin 2B, undergoes further alternative splicing to generate synaptojanin 2B1 and 2B2. Both amphiphysin and endophilin, two partners synaptojanin 1, bind synaptojanin 2B2, whereas only amphiphysin binds synaptojanin 2B1. Sequence similar to the endophilin-binding site in synaptojanin 1 is present only in synaptojanin 2B2, and this sequence was capable of affinity purifying endophilin from rat brain. The Sac1 domain of synaptojanin 2 exhibited phosphoinositide phosphatase activity very similar to that of the Sac1 domain of synaptojanin 1. Site-directed mutagenesis further illustrated its functional similarity to the catalytic domain of Sac1 proteins. Antibodies raised against the synaptojanin 2B-specific carboxyl-terminal region identified a 160-kDa protein in brain and testis. Immunofluorescence showed that synaptojanin 2B is localized at nerve terminals in brain and at the spermatid manchette in testis. Active Rac1 GTPase affects the intracellular localization of synaptojanin 2, but not of synaptojanin 1. These results suggest that synaptojanin 2B has a partially overlapping function with synaptojanin 1 in nerve terminals, with additional roles in neurons and other cells including spermatids

Endophilin 1 is proposed to participate in synaptic vesicle biogenesis through SH3 domain-mediated interactions with the polyphosphoinositide phosphatase synaptojanin and the GTPase dynamin. Endophilin family members have also been identified as binding partners for a number of diverse cellular proteins. We define here the endophilin 1-binding site within synaptojanin 1 and show that this sequence independently and selectively purifies from brain extracts endophilin 1 and a closely related protein, endophilin 2. Endophilin 2, like endophilin 1, is highly expressed in brain, concentrated in nerve terminals, and found in complexes with synaptojanin and dynamin. Although a fraction of endophilins 1 and 2 coexist in the same complex, the distribution of these endophilin isoforms among central synapses only partially overlaps. Endophilins 1 and 2 are found predominantly as stable dimers through a predicted coiled-coil domain in their conserved NH2-terminal moiety. Dimerization may allow endophilins to link a number of different cellular targets to the endocytic machinery

Endophilin 1 is a presynaptically enriched protein which binds the GTPase dynamin and the polyphosphoinositide phosphatase synptojanin. Perturbation of endophilin function in cell-free systems and in a living synapse has implicated endophilin in endocytic vesicle budding (Ringstad, N., H. Gad, P. Low, G. Di Paolo, L. Brodin, O. Shupliakov, and P. De Camilli. 1999. Neuron. 24:143-154; Schmidt, A., M. Wolde, C. Thiele, W. Fest, H. Kratzin, A.V. Podtelejnikov, W. Witke, W.B. Huttner, and H.D. Soling. 1999. Nature. 401:133-141; Gad, H., N. Ringstad, P. Low, O. Kjaerulff, J. Gustafsson, M. Wenk, G. Di Paolo, Y. Nemoto, J. Crun, M.H. Ellisman, et al. 2000. Neuron. 27:301-312). Here, we show that purified endophilin can directly bind and evaginate lipid bilayers into narrow tubules similar in diameter to the neck of a clathrin-coated bud, providing new insight into the mechanisms through which endophilin may participate in membrane deformation and vesicle budding. This property of endophilin is independent of its putative lysophosphatydic acid acyl transferase activity, is mediated by its NH2-terminal region, and requires an amino acid stretch homologous to a corresponding region in amphiphysin, a protein previously shown to have similar effects on lipid bilayers (Takei, K., V.I. Slepnev, V. Haucke, and P. De Camilli. 1999. Nat. Cell Biol. 1:33-39). Endophilin cooligomerizes with dynamin rings on lipid tubules and inhibits dynamin's GTP-dependent vesiculating activity. Endophilin B, a protein with homology to endophilin 1, partially localizes to the Golgi complex and also deforms lipid bilayers into tubules, underscoring a potential role of endophilin family members in diverse tubulovesicular membrane-trafficking events in the cell