Faculty Bibliography

A model is presented for the subthreshold polarization of a neuron by an applied electric field. It gives insight into how morphological features of a neuron affect its polarizability. The neuronal model consists of one or more extensively branched dendritic trees, a lumped somatic impedance, and a myelinated axon with nodes of Ranvier. The dendritic trees branch according to the 3/2-power rule of Rall, so that each tree has an equivalent cylinder representation. Equations for the membrane potential at the soma and at the nodes of Ranvier, given an arbitrary specified external potential, are derived. The solutions determine the contributions made by the dendritic tree and the axon to the net polarization at the soma. In the case of a spatially constant electric field, both the magnitude and sign of the polarization depend on simple combinations of parameters describing the neuron. One important combination is given by the ratio of internal resistances for longitudinal current spread along the dendritic tree trunk and along the axon. A second is given by the ratio between the DC space constant for the dendritic tree trunk and the distance between nodes of Ranvier in the axon. A third is given by the product of the electric field and the space constant for the trunk of the dendritic tree. When a neuron with a straight axon is subjected to a constant field, the membrane potential decays exponentially with distance from the soma. Thus, the soma seems to be a likely site for action potential initiation when the field is strong enough to elicit suprathreshold polarization. In a simple example, the way in which orientation of the various parts of the neuron affects its polarization is examined. When an axon with a bend is subjected to a spatially constant field, polarization is focused at the bend, and this is another likely site for action potential initiation

Quasi steady-state electric fields were applied across the isolated turtle cerebellum to study the relationship between applied field, neuronal morphology and the modulation of the neuronal spike firing pattern. Spiking elements were identified electrophysiologically using extracellular recording methods and by subsequent horseradish peroxidase injection, which revealed their dendritic morphology and orientation. The electric field was precisely defined by measuring the voltage gradients induced in the cerebellum by 40 s constant-current pulses. The field was constant in the vertical (dorso-ventral) axis and zero in the horizontal plane, in agreement with theory. Neurones were modulated by applying a sinusoidal field at frequencies between 0.05 and 1.0 Hz. Modulated cells exhibited an increase in firing frequency and fell into one of four classes, depending on the direction of the field that produced the modulation. Thus neurones were excited by: ventricle-directed fields (V modulation), pia-directed fields (P modulation), both of the above (V/P modulation) or showed no consistent modulation (non-modulation). Most Purkinje somata and primary dendrites (nineteen out of twenty-eight) and most Purkinje dendrites (eighteen out of thirty), were V modulated with maximum rate proportional to the peak field intensity. The dendrites of these cells were consistently oriented toward the pia. Among the stellate cells, the lower molecular layer stellates, with dendrites extending predominantly towards the pia, were mostly (nineteen out of thirty-two) V modulated. The mid-molecular layer stellates, which showed much variability in dendritic orientation, were distributed among all four of the modulation classes. The upper molecular layer stellates, with a mostly horizontal dendritic alignment, were mainly (nine out of sixteen) non-modulated. All groups of spiking elements showed a correlation between patterns of modulation by applied fields and dendritic orientation, which suggests the degree of differential polarization of the extended cable elements of the neurone by the applied field as the basic mechanism for field-induced excitation or inhibition. The threshold for modulation among all neurones was 15-20 mV/mm, which is similar to the fields that modulate other nervous tissues. This suggests that many neurones can be modulated by fields of the order of 10-20 mV/mm

The histological organization of the filum terminale of the spinal cord in Rana catesbeiana and Rana pipiens was characterized to determine if this region possessed an organized neuropil or whether it was merely a glial remnant that persisted after absorption of the larval tail. The excised filum was maintained in vitro. Intracellular electrophysiological recording was performed with horseradish peroxidase injection. Tyrosine hydroxylase and serotonin distribution were revealed by immunocytochemical methods. Astroglia were the dominant cell type and displayed an elaborate variety of forms. The mean membrane potential was logarithmically related to the extracellular potassium concentration but displayed a sub-Nernstian slope. Oligodendroglia were also seen, as well as ependyma that extended from the central canal to the pial surface. Neuronal activity was revealed by occasional intracellular penetration of elements that displayed spontaneous excitatory postsynaptic or action potentials. The major evidence for the presence of neurons was the demonstration of tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) immunoreactivity in a large population of cerebrospinal fluid-contacting neurons that abutted the ventral half of the central canal. The axons of these cells entered a ventral bundle and ascended the cord; some fibers left this tract and apparently terminated on large arcuate neurons within the filum. Serotoninergic fibers were primarily confined to a subpial location at the dorsal midline. We conclude that the filum terminale of the frog has a sparse but functional neuropil that is organized around the central canal and supported by a profusion of elaborate glial forms

The regulation of intracellular pH (pHi) was investigated in reticulospinal neurons of the lamprey using ion-selective microelectrodes. Steady-state pHi in 23 mM HCO-3-buffered Ringer was 7.44 +/- 0.03 with a membrane potential of 54 +/- 4 mV (mean +/- S.E.M., n = 6). In nominally HCO-3-free solutions, pHi recovery from acid loading was blocked by 10(-3)M amiloride. Recovery was stimulated by transition to HCO-3-containing solutions. Results suggest that pHi regulation in lamprey reticulospinal neurons is mediated by a Na+-H+ exchanger. The presence of a distinct, HCO-3-dependent pHi regulatory mechanism is postulated

When a substance is pressure-injected from a micropipette into the extracellular space of the brain it may either form a cavity or it may infiltrate the extracellular space. In either case subsequent diffusion is governed by the volume fraction and tortuosity of the brain tissue as well as the diffusion coefficient of the substance itself. Appropriate equations, solutions and approximations to these problems are discussed. The results are relevant to the interpretation of studies on neuropharmacology and in situ electrochemistry

1. Extracellular pH (pHo) was measured in the cerebellar cortex of the rat using a recently developed liquid membrane ion-selective micropipette (ISM). pHo was determined during stimulus-evoked neuronal activity, elevated extracellular potassium concentration, [K+]o, spreading depression (SD), and complete ischemia. In many experiments [K+]o was simultaneously determined. 2. A train of local surface stimuli (LOC) produced an initial alkaline shift in pHo from a base line of 7.20-7.30 to 7.25-7.35. This was followed by a long-lasting acid phase that reached a plateau of 7.05-7.15 after 64 s of stimulation. pHo decrease was related to stimulus frequency, intensity, and duration. 3. Superfusion with Ringer solution containing manganese ions rapidly abolished parallel fiber-induced Purkinje cell synaptic depolarization together with the alkaline shifts while enhancing the acid shifts. 4. Superfusion of the cerebellar cortex with Ringer solution containing increasingly elevated [K+] progressively lowered pHo to a plateau of 6.95-7.05. The acidification occurred in the presence of ouabain but was reversed on return to the normal [K+]o or with the addition of the glycolytic blocker, fluoride. Stimulus-evoked alkaline shifts were enhanced by K+-Ringer superfusion. These experiments suggested that the acid shift was due to the metabolic production of an anion, possibly lactate. 5. Elevation of [K+]o above 8-12 mM often produced oscillation in pHo and [K+]o with a period of about 40 s. Sometimes these oscillations ended in a spontaneous SD or SD could be evoked by stimulation. Under these conditions of raised [K+]o, the SD consisted of a very pronounced alkaline transient followed by a small, long-lasting acid shift. When SD was induced by conditioning the cerebellum with proprionate or lowered NaCl, the alkaline phase was reduced and the acid enhanced. 6. Complete ischemia began with a progressive decrease of pHo and rise in [K+]o. When [K+]o reached 12 mM, a second more rapid rise in [K+]o to 40 mM or more occurred. This was correlated with 0.1-0.2 pHo transient increase similar to that seen during SD. pHo eventually reached a plateau of 6.60-6.80, close to neutrality. 7. Superfusion with Ringer solution containing acetazolamide immediately altered pHo homeostasis by increasing base-line pHo by about 0.10 and enhanced the induced pHo changes. These results suggest that carbonic anhydrase (CA) is important for acute buffering of the brain extracellular microenvironment. 8. The above results were interpreted in terms of changes in extracellular strong ion concentration differences ( [SID]o), extracellular concentration of total weak acid ( [Atot]o) and partial pressure of CO2 (Pco2) in the brain microenvironment. The results indicate that neuronal activity produces changes in many of the constituents of the microenvironment

K+-selective micropipettes were used to measure external K+ concentration [( K+]o) in the immediate vicinity of Purkinje cells in slices from guinea-pig cerebellum. The cells were either spontaneously active or were polarized via a separate intracellular micro-electrode. The level of [K+]o rose by 1-3 mM around the soma and dendrites of Purkinje cells during spike activity. The increases in [K+]o were usually greater during Ca2+-mediated spikes than during Na+-mediated spikes. This was even true at the soma where the Ca2+ spike only invaded electrotonically from the dendrites, in contrast to the Na+ spikes which were generated at the soma. No [K+]o changes were seen in the vicinity of Purkinje cells when the cells were hyperpolarized with current passage nor was any [K+]o change seen during subthreshold depolarizations. In glial cells, however, a hyperpolarizing current reduced [K+]o while a depolarizing current increased [K+]o in a symmetrical manner. When Ba2+ was substituted for Ca2+ in the bathing Ringer solution, prolonged plateau-potential spikes could be evoked from Purkinje cells. These spikes were accompanied by large [K+]o elevations but the plateau potentials outlasted the [K+]o elevations. These experiments suggest that large [K+]o increases can occur in the absence of Ca2+-mediated K+ conductances. Substitution of Mn2+ for Ca2+ in the Ringer solution removed some of the [K+]o increases at the Purkinje cell soma. Addition of tetrodotoxin to normal Ringer solution also reduced, but did not abolish the [K+]o increases at the soma. These experiments confirmed that both Na+ and Ca2+ spikes were involved in the [K+]o change. The diffusion characteristics of the slices were determined by an ionophoretic method using tetramethylammonium and ion-selective micropipettes. The extracellular volume fraction of the slice averaged 0.28 while the tortuosity averaged 1.84. These values were close to those found previously in the intact rat cerebellum. These data were used to make quantitative estimates of the expected [K+]o accumulation in the vicinity of a single cell (see Appendix). Such estimates showed reasonable agreement with the measured values. Our data show that quite large increases in [K+]o may occur around single Purkinje cells. Such increases have previously only been evident during the activation of cell populations in mammalian preparations. The present results are probably due to the superior recording conditions of the slice. Implications for intercellular communication are discussed

Ion-selective micro-electrodes have been used to measure K+ and Ca2+ activity changes in extracellular space beneath the surface of the neocortex and cerebellar cortex during current flow across the tissue surface in anaesthetized rats. Inward currents produced decreases of [K+]o and outward currents produced increases, with insignificant changes in [Ca2+]o. Changes of [K+]o were largest just under the surface of the tissue, but were detectable down to depths of ca. 1 mm. With appropriate sitting of electrodes in the cerebellar cortex, currents of 22 microA mm-2 for 400 sec produced changes averaging -42% for inward current and +66% for outward current. The [K+]o changes near the surface were most rapid immediately after the onset of current and more gradual after some tens of seconds. Deeper within the tissue the rate of change was more uniform and after the end of stimulation the return to base line was slower. The amplitude, depth dependence and time course of the [K+]o changes were in reasonable agreement with the results calculated for a model in which K+ moves partly through extracellular space but primarily through membranes and cytoplasm within the tissue. The [K+]o changes were not attributable to variations in neuronal activity, although unit activity could be modified by current, since alternating currents failed to produce [K+]o changes and neither 0.1 mM-tetrodotoxin nor 5 mM-Mn2+ abolished the changes. The [K+]o changes were not abolished by topically applied ouabain (4 X 10(-4) M), 2,4-dinitrophenol (20 mM) or iodoacetate (10 mM), or by asphyxiation. Consequently the [K+]o changes are not dependent on metabolism. The data suggest that there is a selective mechanism for passive K+ transport in an electrochemical gradient within brain tissue that results in higher K+ fluxes than could be supported by ionic mobility in the extracellular fluid. This mechanism exists not only at the surface but within the brain parenchyma and may involve current flow through glial cells

Spreading depression (SD) was elicited in the benzoate-conditioned rat cerebellum by microinjection of KC1. Median SD propagation velocity was 9.2 mm . min-1. [Na+]0 decreases, median value 77.5 mM, were measured with ion-selective micropipettes. Superfusion of the cerebellum with 10-5 M tetrodotoxin did not modify the propagation velocity or decrease the [Na+]0 change. This confirms that classical voltage-mediated Na+ conductances are not involved in SD