Faculty Bibliography

In animals, many cells reach their destinations by migrating toward higher concentrations of an attractant. However, the nature, generation, and interpretation of attractant gradients are poorly understood. Using a GFP fusion and a signaling sensor, we analyzed the distribution of the attractant chemokine Sdf1 during migration of the zebrafish posterior lateral line primordium, a cohort of about 200 cells that migrates over a stripe of cells uniformly expressing sdf1. We find that a small fraction of the total Sdf1 pool is available to signal and induces a linear Sdf1-signaling gradient across the primordium. This signaling gradient is initiated at the rear of the primordium, equilibrates across the primordium within 200 min, and operates near steady state. The rear of the primordium generates this gradient through continuous sequestration of Sdf1 protein by the alternate Sdf1-receptor Cxcr7. Modeling shows that this is a physically plausible scenario.

BACKGROUND: Normal development and the response to injury both require cell growth, migration and morphological remodeling, guided by a complex local landscape of permissive and inhibitory cues. A standard approach for studying by such cues is to culture cells on uniform substrates containing known concentrations of these molecules, however this method fails to represent the molecular complexity of the natural growth environment. RESULTS: To mimic the local complexity of environmental conditions in vitro, we used a contact micropatterning technique to examine cell growth and differentiation on patterned substrates printed with the commonly studied growth permissive and inhibitory substrates, poly-L-lysine (PLL) and myelin, respectively. We show that micropatterning of PLL can be used to direct adherence and axonal outgrowth of hippocampal and cortical neurons as well as other cells with diverse morphologies like Oli-neu oligodendrocyte progenitor cell lines and fibroblast-like COS7 cells in culture. Surprisingly, COS7 cells exhibited a preference for low concentration (1 pg/mL) PLL zones over adjacent zones printed with high concentrations (1 mg/mL). We demonstrate that micropatterning is also useful for studying factors that inhibit growth as it can direct cells to grow along straight lines that are easy to quantify. Furthermore, we provide the first demonstration of microcontact printing of myelin-associated proteins and show that they impair process outgrowth from Oli-neu oligodendrocyte precursor cells. CONCLUSION: We conclude that microcontact printing is an efficient and reproducible method for patterning proteins and brain-derived myelin on glass surfaces in order to study the effects of the microenvironment on cell growth and morphogenesis.

BACKGROUND: Prior studies show that apolipoprotein A1 (apoA1) recovered from human atherosclerotic lesions is highly oxidized. Ex vivo oxidation of apoA1 or high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cross-links apoA1 and impairs lipid binding, cholesterol efflux, and lecithin-cholesterol acyltransferase activities of the lipoprotein. Remarkably, no studies to date directly quantify either the function or HDL particle distribution of apoA1 recovered from the human artery wall. METHODS AND RESULTS: A monoclonal antibody (10G1.5) was developed that equally recognizes lipid-free and HDL-associated apoA1 in both native and oxidized forms. Examination of homogenates of atherosclerotic plaque-laden aorta showed >100-fold enrichment of apoA1 compared with normal aorta (P<0.001). Surprisingly, buoyant density fractionation revealed that only a minority (<3% of total) of apoA1 recovered from either lesions or normal aorta resides within an HDL-like particle (1.06390%) of apoA1 within aortic tissue (normal and lesions) was recovered within the lipoprotein-depleted fraction (d>1.21). Moreover, both lesion and normal artery wall apoA1 are highly cross-linked (50% to 70% of total), and functional characterization of apoA1 quantitatively recovered from aorta with the use of monoclonal antibody 10G1.5 showed approximately 80% lower cholesterol efflux activity and approximately 90% lower lecithin-cholesterol acyltransferase activity relative to circulating apoA1. CONCLUSIONS: The function and distribution of apoA1 in human aorta are quite distinct from those found in plasma. The lipoprotein is markedly enriched within atherosclerotic plaque, predominantly lipid-poor, not associated with HDL, extensively oxidatively cross-linked, and functionally impaired.

The K650E gain-of-function mutation in the tyrosine kinase domain of FGF receptor 3 (FGFR3) causes Thanatophoric Dysplasia type II, a neonatal lethal congenital dwarfism syndrome, and when acquired somatically, it contributes to carcinogenesis. In this report, we determine the crystal structure of the FGFR3 kinase domain harboring this pathogenic mutation and show that the mutation introduces a network of intramolecular hydrogen bonds to stabilize the active-state conformation. In the crystal, the mutant FGFR3 kinases are caught in the act of trans-phosphorylation on a kinase insert autophosphorylation site, emphasizing the fact that the K650E mutation circumvents the requirement for A-loop tyrosine phosphorylation in kinase activation. Analysis of this trans-phosphorylation complex sheds light onto the determinants of tyrosine trans-phosphorylation specificity. We propose that the targeted inhibition of this pathogenic FGFR3 kinase may be achievable by small molecule kinase inhibitors that selectively bind the active-state conformation of FGFR3 kinase.

The coexistence of abnormal keratinization and aberrant pigmentation in a number of cornification disorders has long suggested a mechanistic link between these two processes. Here, we deciphered the genetic basis of Cole disease, a rare autosomal-dominant genodermatosis featuring punctate keratoderma, patchy hypopigmentation, and uncommonly, cutaneous calcifications. Using a combination of exome and direct sequencing, we showed complete cosegregation of the disease phenotype with three heterozygous ENPP1 mutations in three unrelated families. All mutations were found to affect cysteine residues in the somatomedin-B-like 2 (SMB2) domain in the encoded protein, which has been implicated in insulin signaling. ENPP1 encodes ectonucleotide pyrophosphatase/phosphodiesterase 1 (ENPP1), which is responsible for the generation of inorganic pyrophosphate, a natural inhibitor of mineralization. Previously, biallelic mutations in ENPP1 were shown to underlie a number of recessive conditions characterized by ectopic calcification, thus providing evidence of profound phenotypic heterogeneity in ENPP1-associated genetic diseases.

EGFR ligands undergo complex processing during their maturation to active signaling proteins. Like its mammalian homologues, the predominant Drosophila EGFR ligand Spitz is produced as a transmembrane pro-protein. In the secretory pathway, Spitz is cleaved within its transmembrane domain to release the extracellular signaling domain. This domain is modified with an N-terminal palmitate group that tethers it to the plasma membrane. We found that the pro-protein can reach the cell surface in the absence of proteolysis, but it fails to activate the EGFR. To address why the transmembrane pro-protein is inactive, while membrane association through the palmitate group promotes activity, we generated a panel of chimeric constructs containing the Spitz extracellular region fused to exogenous transmembrane proteins. Although the orientation of the EGF domain and its distance from the plasma membrane varies in these chimeras, they are all active in vivo. Thus, tethering Spitz to the membrane via a transmembrane domain at either terminus does not prevent activity. Conversely, removing the N-terminal palmitate group from the C-terminally tethered pro-protein does not render it active. Furthermore, we show that the Spitz transmembrane pro-protein can activate the EGFR in a tissue culture assay, indicating that its failure to signal in vivo is not due to structural features. In polarized imaginal disc cells, unprocessed Spitz pro-protein localizes to apical puncta, whereas the active chimeric Spitz constructs are basolaterally localized. Together, our data support the model that localized trafficking of the pro-protein restricts its ability to activate the receptor in polarized tissues.

Increased accumulation of adipose tissue macrophages in obesity propagates chronic inflammation that is closely associated with insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes. Semaphorin 3E, a guidance molecule for neurons, takes on a new role in obesity by directing the recruitment of macrophages in visceral adipose tissue (Shimizu et al., 2013).