Faculty Bibliography

AIMS: Insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) is known to exert cardioprotective actions. However, it remains unknown if autophagy, a major adaptive response to nutritional stress, contributes to IGF-1-mediated cardioprotection. METHODS AND RESULTS: We subjected cultured neonatal rat cardiomyocytes, as well as live mice, to nutritional stress and assessed cell death and autophagic rates. Nutritional stress induced by serum/glucose deprivation strongly induced autophagy and cell death, and both responses were inhibited by IGF-1. The Akt/mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) pathway mediated the effects of IGF-1 upon autophagy. Importantly, starvation also decreased intracellular ATP levels and oxygen consumption leading to AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) activation; IGF-1 increased mitochondrial Ca(2+) uptake and mitochondrial respiration in nutrient-starved cells. IGF-1 also rescued ATP levels, reduced AMPK phosphorylation and increased p70(S6K) phosphorylation, which indicates that in addition to Akt/mTOR, IGF-1 inhibits autophagy by the AMPK/mTOR axis. In mice harbouring a liver-specific igf1 deletion, which dramatically reduces IGF-1 plasma levels, AMPK activity and autophagy were increased, and significant heart weight loss was observed in comparison with wild-type starved animals, revealing the importance of IGF-1 in maintaining cardiac adaptability to nutritional insults in vivo. CONCLUSION: Our data support the cardioprotective actions of IGF-1, which, by rescuing the mitochondrial metabolism and the energetic state of cells, reduces cell death and controls the potentially harmful autophagic response to nutritional challenges. IGF-1, therefore, may prove beneficial to mitigate damage induced by excessive nutrient-related stress, including ischaemic disease in multiple tissues.

ABSTRACT: INTRODUCTION: Hyperinsulinemia, which is common in early type 2 diabetes (T2D) as a result of the chronically insulin-resistant state, has now been identified as a specific factor which can worsen breast cancer prognosis. In breast cancer, a high rate of mortality persists due to the emergence of pulmonary metastases. METHODS: Using a hyperinsulinemic mouse model (MKR+/+) and the metastatic, c-Myc-transformed mammary carcinoma cell line Mvt1, we investigated how high systemic insulin levels would affect the progression of orthotopically inoculated primary mammary tumors to lung metastases. RESULTS: We found that orthotopically injected Mvt1 cells gave rise to larger mammary tumors and to a significantly higher mean number of pulmonary macrometastases in hyperinsulinemic mice over a period of six weeks (hyperinsulinemic, 19.4 +/- 2.7 vs. control, 4.0 +/- 1.3). When Mvt1-mediated mammary tumors were allowed to develop and metastasize for approximately two weeks and were then surgically removed, hyperinsulinemic mice demonstrated a significantly higher number of lung metastases after a four-week period (hyperinsulinemic, 25.1 +/- 4.6 vs. control, 7.4 +/- 0.42). Similarly, when Mvt1 cells were injected intravenously, hyperinsulinemic mice demonstrated a significantly higher metastatic burden in the lung than controls after a three-week period (hyperinsulinemic, 6.0 +/- 1.63 vs. control, 1.5 +/- 0.68). Analysis of Mvt1 cells both in vitro and in vivo revealed a significant up-regulation of the transcription factor c-Myc under hyperinsulinemic conditions, suggesting that hyperinsulinemia may promote c-Myc signaling in breast cancer. Furthermore, insulin-lowering therapy using the beta-adrenergic receptor agonist CL-316243 reduced metastatic burden in hyperinsulinemic mice to control levels. CONCLUSIONS: Hyperinsulinemia in a mouse model promotes breast cancer metastasis to the lung. Therapies to reduce insulin levels in hyperinsulinemic patients suffering from breast cancer could lessen the likelihood of metastatic progression.

Growth hormone (GH) exerts diverse tissue-specific metabolic effects that are not revealed by global alteration of GH action. To study the direct metabolic effects of GH in the muscle, we specifically inactivated the growth hormone receptor (ghr) gene in postnatal mouse skeletal muscle using the Cre/loxP system (mGHRKO model). The metabolic state of the mGHRKO mice was characterized under lean and obese states. High-fat diet feeding in the mGHRKO mice was associated with reduced adiposity, improved insulin sensitivity, lower systemic inflammation, decreased muscle and hepatic triglyceride content, and greater energy expenditure compared with control mice. The obese mGHRKO mice also had an increased respiratory exchange ratio, suggesting increased carbohydrate utilization. GH-regulated suppressor of cytokine signaling-2 (socs2) expression was decreased in obese mGHRKO mice. Interestingly, muscles of both lean and obese mGHRKO mice demonstrated a higher interleukin-15 and lower myostatin expression relative to controls, indicating a possible mechanism whereby GHR signaling in muscle could affect liver and adipose tissue function. Thus, our study implicates skeletal muscle GHR signaling in mediating insulin resistance in obesity and, more importantly, reveals a novel role of muscle GHR signaling in facilitating cross-talk between muscle and other metabolic tissues.

BACKGROUND: Growth hormone (GH) stimulates whole-body lipid oxidation, but its regulation of muscle lipid oxidation is not clearly defined. Mice with a skeletal muscle-specific knockout of the GH receptor (mGHRKO model) are protected from high fat diet (HFD)-induced insulin resistance and display increased whole-body carbohydrate utilization. In this study we used the mGRHKO mice to investigate the role of muscle GHR signaling on lipid oxidation under regular chow (RC)- and HFD- fed conditions, and in response to fasting. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: Expression of lipid oxidation genes was analyzed by real-time PCR in the muscles of RC- and HFD- fed mice, and after 24 h fasting in the HFD-fed mice. Expression of lipid oxidation genes was lower in the muscles of the mGHRKO mice relative to the controls, irrespective of diet. However, in response to 24 h fasting, the HFD-fed mGHRKO mice displayed up-regulation of lipid oxidation genes similar to the fasted controls. When subjected to treadmill running challenge, the HFD-fed mGHRKO mice demonstrated increased whole-body lipid utilization. Additionally, under fasted conditions, the adipose tissue of the mGHRKO mice displayed increased lipolysis as compared to both the fed mGHRKO as well as the fasted control mice. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: Our data show that muscle GHR signaling regulates basal lipid oxidation, but not the induction of lipid oxidation in response to fasting. We further demonstrate that muscle GHR signaling is involved in muscle-adipose tissue cross-talk; however the mechanisms mediating this remain to be elucidated.

IGF-1 is known in regulation of animal size and longevity. It is the most abundant factor deposited in the bone matrix and regulates skeleton growth and peak bone mass. We investigated the mechanism of IGF- 1 in maintenance of bone mass. We found that IGF-1 stimulates phosphorylation of IGF1R, IRS1, PI3K, Akt and mTOR in Sca-1 MSCs. IGF-1-induced osteoblastic differentiation of Sca-1 MSCs and mineralization were inhibited by PI3K inhibitor or rapamycin (mTOR inhibitor). Furthermore, siRNA knockdown of IRS1 inhibited phosphorylation of PI3K, Akt and mTOR induced by IGF-1. Rapamycin inhibited IGF-1-induced expression of osterix, Runx2, alkaline phosphatase, osteocalcin, osteoglycin and osteoactivin. Sca-1 Igf1r or Igf1r MSCs were transplanted underneath the renal capsule of immunodeficient Rag2 mice with injection of rapamycin or vehicle daily for 4 weeks. Rapamycin inhibited mineralization and differentiation of MSCs in histological analysis. Moreover, subcutaneous injection of rapamycin in wild-type mice showed that osteocalcin-positive osteoblasts decreased significantly at the bone surface trabecular bone deficits, indicating that the IRS1-Akt-mTOR activation is essential for MSC differentiation in bone formation. We then examined IGF-1 levels in bone matrix and found that the decrease of IGF-1 levels in the bone matrix correlates with decrease of bone mass during aging of rats. Osteoporotic patients with hip fractures were also found to have 40% lower IGF-1 levels in bone marrow serum relative to controls. To assess whether IGF Binding Protein 3(IGFBP3) regulates IGF-1 activity in bone, we injected IGF-1/IGFBP3 into the distal femur cavity of aged rats once a week for 4 weeks. Co-injection with IGF-1/IGFBP3 produced a higher level of IGF-1 in the bone matrix along with improvement in trabecular mass and micro-architecture. Furthermore, we investigated whether systemic IGF-1 and IGFBP3 can target and become immobilized in the bone matrix. IGF-1/IGFBP3 was delivered for 4 weeks via osmotic pum!

Understanding insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF1) biology is of particular importance because, apart from its role in mediating growth, it plays key roles in cellular transformation, organ regeneration, immune function, development of the musculoskeletal system and aging. IGF1 bioactivity is modulated by its binding to IGF-binding proteins (IGFBPs) and the acid labile subunit (ALS), which are present in serum and tissues. To determine whether IGF1 binding to IGFBPs is necessary to facilitate normal growth and development, we used a gene-targeting approach and generated two novel knock-in mouse models of mutated IGF1, in which the native Igf1 gene was replaced by Des-Igf1 (KID mice) or R3-Igf1 (KIR mice). The KID and KIR mutant proteins have reduced affinity for the IGFBPs, and therefore present as unbound IGF1, or 'free IGF1'. We found that both KID and KIR mice have reduced serum IGF1 levels and a concomitant increase in serum growth hormone levels. Ternary complex formation of IGF1 with the IGFBPs and the ALS was markedly reduced in sera from KID and KIR mice compared with wild type. Both mutant mice showed increased body weight, body and bone lengths, and relative lean mass. We found selective organomegaly of the spleen, kidneys and uterus, enhanced mammary gland complexity, and increased skeletal acquisition. The KID and KIR models show unequivocally that IGF1-complex formation with the IGFBPs is fundamental for establishing normal body and organ size, and that uncontrolled IGF bioactivity could lead to pathological conditions.

Although the literature suggests a protective (anabolic) effect of insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) on the musculoskeletal system during growth and aging, there is evidence that reductions in IGF-1 signaling are advantageous for promoting an increase in life span through reduction in oxidative stress-induced tissue damage. To better understand this paradox, we utilized the hepatocyte-specific IGF-1 transgenic (HIT) mice, which exhibit 3-fold increases in serum IGF-1, with normal IGF-1 expression in other tissues, and mice with an IGF-1 null background that exclusively express IGF-1 in the liver, which thereby deliver IGF-1 by the endocrine route only (KO-HIT mice). We found that in the total absence of tissue igf1 gene expression (KO-HIT), increases in serum IGF-1 levels were associated with increased levels of lipid peroxidation products in serum and increased mortality rate at 18 months of age in both genders. Surprisingly, however, we found that in female mice, tissue IGF-1 plays an important role in preserving trabecular bone architecture as KO-HIT mice show bone loss in the femoral distal metaphysis. Additionally, in male KO-HIT mice, increases in serum IGF-1 levels were insufficient to protect against age-related muscle loss.

Insulin, growth hormone (GH), and insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) play key roles in the regulation of beta cell growth and function. Although beta cells express the GH receptor, the direct effects of GH on beta cells remain largely unknown. Here we have employed a rat insulin II promoter-driven (RIP-driven) Cre recombinase to disrupt the GH receptor in beta cells (betaGHRKO). betaGHRKO mice fed a standard chow diet exhibited impaired glucose-stimulated insulin secretion but had no changes in beta cell mass. When challenged with a high-fat diet, betaGHRKO mice showed evidence of a beta cell secretory defect, with further deterioration of glucose homeostasis indicated by their altered glucose tolerance and blunted glucose-stimulated insulin secretion. Interestingly, betaGHRKO mice were impaired in beta cell hyperplasia in response to a high-fat diet, with decreased beta cell proliferation and overall reduced beta cell mass. Therefore, GH receptor plays critical roles in glucose-stimulated insulin secretion and beta cell compensation in response to a high-fat diet.

Deficiencies in either growth hormone (GH) or insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) are associated with reductions in bone size during growth in humans and animal models. Liver-specific IGF-1-deficient (LID) mice, which have 75% reductions in serum IGF-1, were created previously to separate the effects of endocrine (serum) IGF-1 from autocrine/paracrine IGF-1. However, LID mice also have two- to threefold increases in GH, and this may contribute to the observed pubertal skeletal phenotype. To clarify the role of GH in skeletal development under conditions of significantly reduced serum IGF-1 levels (but normal tissue IGF-1 levels), we studied the skeletal response of male LID and control mice to GH inhibition by pegvisomant from 4 to 8 weeks of age. Treatment of LID mice with pegvisomant resulted in significant reductions in body weight, femur length (Le), and femur total area (Tt.Ar), as well as further reductions in serum IGF-1 levels by 8 weeks of age, compared with the mean values of vehicle-treated LID mice. Reductions in both Tt.Ar and Le were proportional after treatment with pegvisomant. On the other hand, the relative amount of cortical tissue formed (RCA) in LID mice treated with pegvisomant was significantly less than that in both vehicle-treated LID and control mice, indicating that antagonizing GH action, either directly (through GH receptor signaling inhibition) or indirectly (through further reductions in serum/tissue IGF-1 levels), results in disproportionate reductions in the amount of cortical bone formed. This resulted in bones with significantly reduced mechanical properties (femoral whole-bone stiffness and work to failure were markedly decreased), suggesting that compensatory increases of GH in states of IGF-1 deficiency (LID mice) act to protect against a severe inhibition of bone modeling during growth, which otherwise would result in bones that are too weak for normal and/or extreme loading conditions.